Livestock is a catalyst for helping rural households accomplish their livelihood goals through six different ways. First, by ensuring food, labour, and good health, these improve human resources for the activity. Second, they promote cultural diversity and ancestry to generate social capital. Thirdly, they add to natural capital, which provides goods and services to maintain and increase living standards. Fourth, they provide people with adequate transport, draught power, and energy from renewable sources to improve production. Fifth, they increase family income, offer an opportunity of investment, and become financial assets or credit security to maintain living requirements. Lastly, they protect from external disturbances [1]. Globally, small ruminant populations serve a significant role in livestock systems and they play a crucial role in maintaining the nutritional well-being of a vast rural population, specifically subsistence farmers without land residing in tropical countries [2]. Goats are important to the country’s economy and both large- and small-scale farmers rely on them for their overall production system. Primary sources of protein consist of milk and meat, whereas a significant amount of exportation comprises of skins, live animals, and carcasses with the intention of generating profit [3]. M. K. Gandhi, the renowned Indian leader, defined goats as “the poor man’s cow,” emphasizing the importance of goats in developing nations [4]. Livestock accounts for 1.85% of Bangladesh’s Gross domestic product and 80% of rural people are engaged in livestock rearing [5]. Bangladesh has an abundance of livestock resources, including 24.8 million cattle, 1.56 million buffaloes, 26.9 million goats, and 3.8 million sheep have been raised in Bangladesh [5]. Thus, goats play a crucial role in Bangladesh’s agricultural economy by providing food, nutrition, income, savings, and among other things. Their smaller size, which encourages minimal investment, little risk of loss, and excellent fertility, is largely responsible for their economic significance [6]. Goat farming is rising in Bangladesh to meet animal protein demand. Bangladesh’s hot and humid climate promotes diseases that reduce animal productivity and expense veterinary expenditures [7–9]. Although the livestock sub-sector contributes a lot to the national economy in some of our country, its development is hampered by various constraints such as various diseases and disorders [10]. However, the benefits derived from these goats are significantly less than those anticipated in terms of quantity and quality, largely due to infectious and non-infectious diseases lowering productivity [11]. Various diseases can affect individuals or groups in goat flocks, resulting in low body weights and an increased mortality [8]. Seasonal variation in pathogenic infections incidence and severity may be due to host immunity variations and pathogen or vector predominance. It is essential to understand the pattern of disease occurrence since it indicates a time when an event is most likely to happen [10]. Considering the importance of goats to the economy, and the negative implications of various infectious and non-infectious diseases on their productivity and reproductivity, this study is aimed to determine the frequency and trends of common diseases and disorders and to reduce the effects of various risk factors on these diseases in Bangladesh. This study will assist the formal authority for controlling of goat diseases and disorders in Bangladesh.

Directly or indirectly disease is one of the major barriers for the improvement of livestock production, reproduction, and marketing. Diseases of various origins (bacterial, viral, parasitic, and so on) are among the numerous factors responsible for poor production and productivity [3]. This current study provides the insights and situation of common goat diseases and disorders in Bangladesh that helps to mitigate these diseases ultimately increase the goat production in this country.

In this present study, overall, nineteen (19) diseases and disorders have been observed in 2107 goats, and their incidence was documented. The highest incidence of gastro-intestinal infection was diarrhoea (29.38%), slightly lower (33.2%) than Munsi et al. [12] and (31.1%) by Rahman et al. [13]. The lowest incidence (0.05%) rate of dystocia has been recorded which is lower than (0.3%) reported by Rahman et al. [13] and (0.40%) by Munsi et al. [12]. The 2nd highest incidence (22.69%) was pneumonia, less than (27.4%) reported by Rahman et al. [13] and (37.4%) by Munsi et al. [12]. In this study, CAEV infection was found (0.81%) which is lower than Rahman et al. [14] recorded CAEV (2.44%) in Dhaka district. This difference might be due to the diagnostic test used and difference in sample size, production systems, and husbandry practices. Some other diseases and disorders reported in this study were abortion (0.57%), abscess (3.08%), actinomycosis (1.42%), bloat (6.60%), conjunctivitis (0.62%), CE (3.80%), fever (5.36%), horn injury (0.62), Caprine pasteurellosis (6.17%), malnutrition (9.59%), dermatitis (2.37%), mastitis (1.38%), mechanical injuries (2.80%), CCPP (1.71%) and urolithiasis (1.00%). According to Haque et al. [7] and Rahman et al. [15], they reported Caprine pasteurellosis (48.57%) in pneumonic goats in Bangladesh and this dissimilarity could be due to differences in sample type, study areas, sample size and diagnostic techniques used. According to Munsi et al. [12], other major clinical diseases and disorders in goats were recorded lameness (3.01%), mange (2.99%), malnutrition (2.82%), CE (1.93%) and fever (1.85%). On the other hand, mange (6.2%), lameness (9.0%), diarrhoea (31.1%), bloat (2.1%), abortion (1.7%), tympany (1.5%), malnutrition (3.2%), CE (4.4%), conjunctivitis (2.6%), abscess (1.1%), mechanical injuries (1.2%), mastitis (1.7%), fever (2.7%), actinomycosis (1.1%), fox bite (1.1%), retained placenta (0.8%), urolithiasis (0.6%) and poisoning (0.4%) were the other diseases in goats reported by Rahman et al. [13]. From 1980 to 1984 in Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Bangladesh Agricultural University, 5.3% of urolithiasis cases were documented by Hossain et al. [16], that surpasses the findings of the present investigation. Urolithiasis was identified by Mclntosh [17] as a condition in which dietary factors significantly contributed. In this current study, we also found CCPP (1.71%) that was very much lower than Rahman et al. [18] reported CCPP (11.90%) for the first time in Bangladeshi goats in Dhaka district and this variation could be due to difference in sample size and diagnostic techniques used.

In this present research, the annual incidence of diseases and disorders observed in goats for 5 years from 2018 to 2022. In 2021, the highest incidence rate (29.62%) was seen due to some factors such as a large sample size, higher animal density, high humidity and temperature, and difference in diagnostic tools used, and the lowest incidence (11.82%) in the year of 2019 and this could be due to the lower sample size and poor data recording system. Among 19 diseases & disorders, the highest incidence of diarrhoea (30.53%), CE (31.25%), malnutrition (27.72%), and dermatitis were found in the year of 2018 and these variations might be due to poor management and husbandry practices. On the other hand, higher incidence of bloat (23.02%), fever (30.09%), horn injury (38.46%), Caprine pasteurellosis (35.38%), mechanical injury (54.24%) and pneumonia (43.31%) were recorded in the year of 2021 and this could be due to the larger sample size in that year, hot & humid climatic condition and difference in diagnostic tools and data recording system used. A similar pattern of results was recorded previously by Chowdhury et al. [19] in which 42.4% of goats had pneumonia, then diarrhoea (32.6%), ecthyma (20.7%) & bloat (4.3%). In this study, only one case of dystocia was found in 2021 and this might be due to the poor data recording system. The current investigation has shown similarities to previous investigations in terms of the annual pattern of diseases and disorders. Munsi et al. [12] stated the higher incidence of diarrhea (33.23%), pneumonia (67.63%), mange (5.49%), malnutrition (4.62%), and CE (3.46%) in the year of 2014 BLRI goat research farm, Savar, Dhaka. A previous study by Hoque and Samad [20] reported an incidence of 10.4% for fever of unknown cause in goats from Bangladesh. In addition, Rahman et al. [21] reported an occurrence of gastrointestinal problems in goats, with an incidence rate of 12.7% in Bangladesh.

In the current investigation, the highest incidence (37.68%) found in winter season compared to summer and rainy seasons and this variation in results could be due to winter season is more vulnerable to disease prevalence than other seasons and also goats are very much vulnerable to the winter. The results of Nath et al. [22] showed a similar pattern, with a higher occurrence of goat diseases in the winter and rainy seasons compared to the summer and Sardar et al. [23], who recorded higher incidence of goat diseases in winter season. These findings might be due to the lower immunity and stress condition in winter season. The present finding aligns closely with the findings of Raquib et al. [24], which indicate that the winter season exhibits the highest prevalence of pneumonia (16.19%), and then follows the summer season (9.92%), and the rainy season (7.40%). In addition, Sardar et al. [23], recorded the higher incidence of pneumonia and fever in winter season. In this current study, higher incidence of diarrhea (38.13% & 34.57%) and dermatitis (40.00% & 38.00%) was found in winter and rainy seasons, respectively, similarly Munsi et al. [12] & Sardar et al. [23], recorded the higher incidence of diarrhea and dermatitis in rainy and winter seasons. In addition, the higher incidence of CE (51.25%) found in winter while the incidence of mastitis (48.28%) recorded to be higher in summer season. This finding supports the finding of Munsi et al. [12] who reported the higher incidence of Ecthyma in winter season.

The incidence of disorders and diseases are differed among different breeds of goats and it was remarkably varied between the BBG at 74.70%, Jamunapari goat at 21.21%, and Boer goat at 4.09%. These disparities could potentially be attributed to variations in sample size across breeds, management systems, and farming practices. The incidence of all diseases and disorders was found to be higher in BBGs than in Jamunapari and Boar goats, according to this study and this could be because of popularity of rearing BBGs in observed area of this country that has reflected in the sample size in the present study. The incidence of diarrhoea in Black Bengal, Jamunapari, and Boer goats were 70.44%, 24.72%, and 4.85%, respectively, and the incidence of pneumonia in Black Bengal, Jamunapari, and Boer goats were 84.73%, 13.18% and 2.09, respectively. These findings support the previous study by Munsi et al. [12], recorded the higher incidence of diarrhea and pneumonia in BBGs. While Rahman et al. [13] reported a higher incidence (41.1%) of diarrhea in Jamunapari goats but a higher incidence (37.0%) of pneumonia in BBGs. Furthermore, the results of Kashem et al. [25], Dey et al. [26], and Amin et al. [27] are further supported by these observations. Similar results were found by Chowdhury et al. [19], who found 42.4% BBGs with pneumonia, 32.6% diarrhoea, 20.7% CE, and 4.3% bloat.

In the case of sex-wise incidence of goat diseases and disorders, the highest incidence observed in female (54.01%) than that of male (45.99%). This finding was very much rational since female group is more vulnerable to diseases than male group of animals. This observation supports the findings of Sardar et al. [23], Kashem et al. [25] and Alam et al. [28] they reported the higher incidence of diseases and disorders in female goats in different areas of Bangladesh but disagree with Sen et al. [29] who recorded the higher incidence goat diseases in male (54.30%) than that of in female (45.70%). Almost similar pattern of findings recorded previously by many investigators such as Lucky et al. [30] reported the higher incidence of bloat (28.58%) and diarrhea (35.72%) in female but incidence of mite infestation observed to be higher in male goats and Sardar et al. [23] reported the higher incidence of pneumonia, bloat, abscess, and cataract in female while the incidence of dermatitis found to be higher in male goats. The incidence of horn injury recorded in this investigation to be higher in male goats and this variation might be due to the fighting tendency of male goats. Furthermore, higher incidence of CAEV infection and Caprine pasteurellosis were found in female goats that male goats and these findings agree with Rahman et al. [15] who reported the similar pattern of results in Bangladeshi goats. In addition, the higher incidence of CCPP in female goats was observed than male, similar pattern of result recorded by Rahman et al. [18] who reported higher incidence of CCPP in female goats for the first time in Bangladesh.

In this current study, the higher incidence of disease and disorders observed in growing animals (46.13%) than in kid (21.31%) and adult (32.56%), respectively. This finding agrees with the previous studies Rahman et al. [13], Nath et al. [22] and Kabir et al. [31], they reported growing animals are more susceptible to diseases and disorders but misalign with Hossain et al. [32] they reported the higher incidence of diseases in young goats (42.74%) than older goats (32.26%). Kids younger than 3 months exhibited the highest occurrence of cataract (46.15%), malnutrition (38.12%), and lowest incidence of abscess (9.23%), similar pattern of findings have been recorded previously by Munsi et al. [12] and Rahman et al. [13]. In this investigation, incidence of pneumonia (61.72 %), diarrhoea (47.98 %), abscess (56.92%), fever (48.67%), and urolithiasis (76.19%) observed higher in growing goats and these findings might be due the larger sample size from growing animals used in this study among total study populations and this finding also almost agree with Rahman et al. [13] reported higher incidence of pneumonia and urolithiasis in growing animals and Raquib et al. [24], recorded higher incidence of pneumonia in growing goats. However, the incidence of Actinomycosis (56.67%), CAEV infections (70.59%), and horn injury (76.92%) was highest in animals older than 12 months and these findings could be due to the susceptible age preference of these diseases and disorders. Rahman et al. [14] reported previously, the higher incidence of CAEV infections in goats having 12–48 months of age. In this current study, higher incidence of bloat (44.60% & 43.88%) and dermatitis (40.00% and 48.00%) found in both growing and adult animals, respectively, similar observations recorded previously by Munsi et al. [12], Rahman et al. [13] and Raquib et al. [24], they record higher incidence of bloat and dermatitis in growing and adult animals than kids. On the other hand, higher incidence (46.25% and 47.50%) of CE found in both kids and growing animals, respectively, and these findings might be due the disease nature and lower immunity of goats having in earlier age, similar pattern of observations recorded previously by Munsi et al. [12]. In addition, from the current investigations was documented the incidence of CCPP was higher in both growing and adult goats, and similar pattern of findings recorded by Rahman et al. [18], who reported the higher incidence of CCPP in goats having more than 6 months of age.

The current study gives the scenario of diseases and disorders in the particular study area. The incidence of important clinical diseases and disorders observed during the clinical examination of ill goats included pneumonia, diarrhoea, malnutrition, bloat, and fever. Although some new diseases found in the context of Bangladesh such as CAEV, CCPP, caprine pasteurellosis. Although, the incidence of most infectious diseases was not observed due to effective health management practices on the farm, including regular deworming, dipping, and vaccination. Moreover, hygienic management and feeding practices can develop the health status of animals from malnutrition. Among the diseases observed in this area, winter season showed the highest incidence of the diseases and disorders. The incidence of diseases and disorders also varies with the breed and age of the animals. Good management practice, adequate feeding, schedule deworming, vaccination, and right choice of antimicrobials may prevent these common goat diseases and disorders in Bangladesh.

Several diseases and disorders have been hampered the goat production and also the major threats for goat farming. The study determined the important goat diseases and disorders in one area only. A national epidemiological investigation using highly accurate diagnostic assays is recommended to find out the disease’s prevalence in goats. Additionally, in depth research would be required for the identification and characterization of etiological agents in the larger areas of Bangladesh.

BBG, Black Bengal Goat; CE, Contagious Ecthyma; CCPP, Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia; CAEV, Caprine arthritis and encephalitis virus; ELISA, Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay; FMD, Foot and mouth disease; JP, Jamunapari; PCR, Polymerase chain reaction; SPSS, Statistical package for social sciences; PPR, Peste des petits ruminants.

The authors would like to thank the Divisional Head and lab personnel of the Goat Production Research Division, Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute (BLRI) for conducting this research work.

The authors affirm that no conflicts of interest exist.

The corresponding author will provide the datasets used and/or analysed for this study on reasonable request.

Md. Nurul Haque: Collection of samples, conducted experiment, data analysis and interpretation, writing manuscript. Md. Habibur Rahman: Conceptualization, experimental design, conducted experiment, data analysis and interpretation, writing manuscript and revise the manuscript.